The Most Ancient Ghosts – 400,000 to 3,000 BCE
Evidence for a belief in some form of spiritual survival after physical death, and a reverence for the memory of the departed can be seen in prehistoric cave paintings from many parts of the world. [1] Also, corpses being buried in deliberately built graves indicates a level of respect and significance regarding bodily death. This practice was undertaken by Neanderthals from some time as far back as 400,000 years ago up until their apparent demise around 40,000 BCE. This was also the case for early Homo Sapiens, who coexisted with Neanderthals for a number of millennia, from approximately 50,000 years ago. By this time grave goods were also found with the skeletal remains, further suggesting honouring of the dead. [2]
The first irrefutable mention of ghosts in the annals of history is circa 3,000 BCE, around five thousand years ago. It appears on an example of the oldest comprehensible writing in the world, the Mesopotamian cuneiform (wedge-shaped) script written on clay tablets in what is now Iraq. [3] At precisely what point in time between prehistoric cave paintings and this first documented mention of ghosts such a spiritual concept developed is, of course, impossible to ascertain now. Ancient Mesopotamian ghosts were known as gidim and can be found in the most important literary work of the period, The Epic of Gilgamesh. [4]
The first known written reference to ghosts, found on a Mesopotamian clay cuneiform tablet.
Ancient Egypt – 2,700 to 1,100 BCE
The ancient Egyptians were obsessed with the concept of an afterlife which shaped nearly every aspect of their civilization and is often referred to as a ‘Cult of the Dead’. They believed that there existed three immaterial or spiritual parts within the physical human body, the ka, ba and akh, which parallel the astral body, the mind and the immortal soul of the Western esoteric tradition. The last of these, the akh, was said to be able to return as a ghost after bodily death. [5]
The assorted collection of texts known as The Book of the Dead, written by many priests over a long period of time during the first and second millennia BCE contains a number of spells intended to help a dead person with their journey through the underworld, or Duat, and on to an afterlife. The final judgement of their sins involved a ‘Weighing of the Heart’ ritual using a magical set of scales, which determined whether the deceased proceeded to their afterlife or was unpleasantly eaten by Ammit, the ‘Devourer of the Damned’. [6]
Scene from the Book of the Dead, showing the judgement of Hunefer.
Ancient Greece – 1,200 to 323 BCE
The ancient Greeks also had a fascination with the dead, the afterlife and ghosts, whom they broadly termed phasma. While some of their literature and mythology expressed ambiguous concepts about the nature of ghosts, references to them are both numerous and widespread. The ancient Greek concept of ghosts was complex, with many sub-categories and names, often depending on the nature or timing of bodily death. [7] A famous work which features ghosts is Homer’s Odysssey, written in 800 BCE, in which the Greek hero Odysseus encounters many ghosts and spirits. [8]
The Shade of Tiresias Appearing to Odysseus during the Sacrifice.
Ancient Rome – 625 BCE to 43 CE
Ancient Roman beliefs concerning life after death were very varied. No single concept was particularly overarching, as the underlying polytheism (worshipping of multiple gods and goddesses) was supplemented by philosophical speculation and by individual sects such as Stoicism, Mithraism, Judaism, and eventually Christianity. [9] Ancient Roman folklore stories often used similar terms for demons, spirits, ghosts, apparitions, and even entities encountered in dreams. These beings could be either friendly or malicious and there are also many accounts of haunted houses, often noted as being difficult to sell on. [10] An important work of the period is Ovid’s Fasti (Book V), published in 8 CE. It not only discusses the festival of Lemuria, during which rites were performed to exorcise malevolent and restless ghosts, but also presents the myth of the ghost of Remus, brother of Romulus, the legendary founder and first King of Rome. [11]
The iconic statue in Rome of Romulus and Remus with the Capitoline Wolf.
Other Ancient Ghosts - 1st Millennium BCE
In ancient times, the importance of burial rites, the concept of life after death, and a belief in ghosts was prevalent across the world. In China, for example, the prevailing theme of the afterlife was focussed on ancestor worship, with the dead existing in a different immaterial realm and only manifesting when troubled. However, the Chinese philosopher Mo Ti (470 – 391 BCE) believed that ghosts inhabited the same world as the living and could interact with them, and were not always distressed, even when apparitions were reported. [12]
In the Indian subcontinent, ancient texts describe a bhoota (or bhuta) as a supernatural entity, usually the ghost of a deceased person. Explanations of how bhootas manifest vary across the region, but they are usually considered to be restless spirits that have been prevented from moving on to some form of afterlife, whether transmigration, non-being, nirvana, swarga or naraka, depending on local tradition. This could be as a result of violent death, unresolved matters in their lives, or improper funeral rites having been conducted. [13]
A benevolent Brahmadaitya saving a poor Brahmin man from a group of Bhoot’ (ghosts).